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222 Part III: Executing Your Software Project Plan Table 10-1 Project Risk Management Processes Risk Management Process Definition Risk management planning Planning on how to deal with project risk management activities Risk identification Identifying the risks that could potentially affect your software project Qualitative risk analysis Deciding on the priorities of each risk and determining the probability of a risk actually happening Quantitative risk analysis Assigning a number to each risk so that you can analyze its possible affects Risk response planning Planning how you will respond to each risk so that you can minimize threats to your project objectives Risk monitoring and control Tracking and monitoring existing risks as well as identifying new risks while you evaluate the effectiveness of your risk management plan and make appropriate revisions Each of these risk management processes has particular tools and techniques that you can use as you develop your risk management plan. The tools and techniques for the first process risk management planning are planning meetings and analysis. Gathering information to identify real risks As you begin planning your software project, you need to hold meetings with appropriate stakeholders, such as current team members and associates in the firm who have worked on similar projects in the past. All these people, and others who may have information to contribute to the success of your project, can share their experiences and expertise. During these initial meetings, with your firm s risk tolerance in mind, you will begin gathering information to develop your risk management plan. Your organization may even have templates that you can use for these activities. During the risk management planning phase, you re likely to be performing risk identification because you and other appropriate stakeholders will be reviewing project documentation, such as previous project plans and project files.
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Chapter 10: Working the Project Plan 221 If your organization already has certain methods that they use for defining terms and concepts for creating risk categories, use them when defining your risk management plan. Examining typical risks The following list includes some examples of some of the risks you may encounter and should plan for during your software project: Key resources (materials and personnel) leaving your project Technology becoming obsolete Stakeholders attempting to enhance the scope of your project (scope creep) Leadership changing direction Labor disputes or strikes Schedule delays due to issues with off-site resources Personnel resources being squeezed because they are working on too many projects simultaneously Lack of commitment to project funding Software testing revealing major bugs that could impact the timeline Getting a plan together We re sure you can think of other risks for your specific projects. The more often you create project plans and risk management plans for your software projects, the easier it will become to develop risk management plans. As we said in Chapter 1, there are nine knowledge areas, identified by the Project Management Institute (PMI), to consider in project management. These knowledge areas interact with and affect each another. The knowledge area that impacts risk is (unoriginally) called project risk management. Table 10-1 lists the six processes involved with project risk management, as well as a brief definition of each process.
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220 Part III: Executing Your Software Project Plan If you knew with certainty every scenario that could possibly happen with your software project, you would not need a risk management plan. But chances are, you will never start a project with 100 percent complete information at hand. Things change. Team members may leave to take other job offers, thus putting your schedule at risk. Your technology may become obsolete, thus putting the quality of your project at risk. One of your preferred vendors may go out of business, forcing you to seek solutions elsewhere at perhaps a higher price, thus putting your costs at risk. Accept the fact that dealing with risks is just a normal part of project planning. When you re working on a project, you re creating a unique product or service. Because the product or service has never been created before, you can t possibly have all the facts. Gathering the ingredients for a solid risk management plan The best place to start when creating a risk management plan is to identify and document the risks that may occur and then strategize on how to deal with or avoid them. This plan should occur early in the project. Your goal is to increase the probability and impact of positive events while decreasing the probability and impact of negative events. Here are the ingredients you need when setting up a risk management plan: The project scope statement: Because the project scope statement contains information regarding the products and services you are creating with the project and has information regarding what is and is not included in your project, you will need to use this in developing your risk management plan. The project management plan: The project management plan lists the activities, resources, task sequence, and schedule; you will use this to identify and plan for risks concerned with these areas. Your organization s risk tolerance strategy: You must also know your organization s general attitude toward risks when developing your risk management plan. If the organization tends to have a low tolerance for risk, you may not want to consider some activities that you would otherwise have no problem doing. On the other hand, if your organization has a high risk tolerance, you may want to allow for certain activities that other firms may never consider.
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Chapter 10: Working the Project Plan 219 Instead of planning for a smart inventory system for an online shopping firm, your team skipped out early. When the program was complete, you didn t perform sufficient testing. Now, whenever a customer orders a 40watt light bulb, he or she receives a 12-ounce jar of spicy canned meat. Yum! Your customers might really enjoy the taste of the canned meat, but that won t light up the room, will it? These are also examples of why the cost of quality should be built into the project plan. You should spend your time preventing errors rather than fixing errors after they occur. It is more cost efficient and no one will end up eating their meat in the dark. This concept is often referred to as prevention over inspection. The cost of quality includes the costs of all your software testing, as well as any other steps you take to ensure the quality of your product and project. It is your responsibility as the project manager to ensure that your team follows the quality policy, and you have the ultimate responsibility for the quality of the final product. You need to know your firm s quality policy, because it is an input to the quality planning process. The quality policy (as you may have guessed) states your organization s approach to quality. Quality is not a subjective component that can be decided upon by your team on a per-project basis. However, your team should understand and follow the quality policy determined by your organization. Managing Software Project Risks Everything you do has built-in risks. When you reached to pull this book off the bookshelf, you risked losing your balance and falling in the bookstore, becoming the laughing stock of the store. You also took a risk of discovering something new and becoming a better software project manager in the process. Risk management is concerned with identifying potential risks for your project and then putting a plan together to deal with them if they occur. A risk to your software project is an uncertain event or condition that, if it occurs, affects at least one project objective, such as time, costs, scope, or quality. Risks are usually seen as negative events, but there is such a thing as a positive risk. A risk with a positive consequence is that a project that one of your developers is working on gets postponed or cancelled. This risk is a negative for some other poor, sad PM, but the effect is a positive for you that can translate into improved deadlines and code quality.
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218 Part III: Executing Your Software Project Plan assurance deals with making sure project work is being performed in an effective and efficient manner. Audits are usually involved in quality assurance. In addition to quality audits, another set of tools and techniques that you can use to ensure quality assurance on your project are the quality planning tools that you used when creating your quality management plans, such as benefit/ cost analysis, benchmarking, and flowcharting. If you have a choice, your approach to quality assurance should be proactive instead of reactive. You want to have adequate quality policies in place testing, coding standards, and so on before releasing code to your customers. Preventing bugs in your code is much more efficient than fixing bugs after they enter the code. Following the Quality Policy During the planning phase of all software projects, you define your quality management plan and outline how you plan to ensure quality in your project and your product. You document how you plan to confirm that the project will satisfy the stated requirements. You also outline how you can continue to make quality improvements. Think of the consequences of not following your quality policy for your software project: Your team wrote code for a system (like the hospital software system we discuss earlier in this chapter) that allows physicians to place medication orders; this info gets passed to the pharmacy system. Your team did not perform sufficient integration testing and you discover that when a physician enters mg for a unit of measure on a medication, this appears in the pharmacy system as gram. Ouch! This is an extreme example just to demonstrate the importance of following your quality policy. Chances are, something this important would never get to the testing phase; a mistake like this would likely be caught during requirements gathering. Your team wrote the code for a banking program, but the team didn t do anything to address decimal points, and neglected to perform sufficient functional testing. Now, when a teller enters a customer deposit of $10, the software records a deposit of $100. Good news for the customer; unemployment for the project manager.
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Chapter 10: Working the Project Plan 217 Using benefit/cost analysis and benchmarking Preventing errors is usually more cost effective if your software doesn t know where to put the than fixing them after they make their way into decimal). the software. During your quality management Benchmarking is a quality planning tool that planning, you can use a benefit/cost analysis to enables you to compare your project to other determine whether the benefit of meeting qual- similar software projects so that you can have ity requirements is worth the cost to implement some standard to judge your project against. the quality standards. For example, the benefits For example, if most projects like yours usually for incorporating quality requirements such as require two print servers and your project system testing are that you ll spend less time requires eight print servers, you are over your recoding the software, your project will cost benchmark, at least in this area of the project. less (project team members won t have to spend as much time fixing bugs), your cus-Another quality planning tool that you may use in tomer s satisfaction will be improved, and, your software project is flowcharting. You can depending on the software, unknown third par-create flowcharts with a paper and pencil or with ties will benefit. Consider those untold millions an application such as Microsoft Visio. You who could be affected if you re implementing create a picture or diagram that shows the software in the health care industry (failure of sequence of steps you might take for a particuyour software could affect patient safety) or the lar quality planning activity. For instance, you banking industry (people could lose real money might list the steps required for integrated testing. Following Quality Assurance Using the quality assurance process, you ensure that the project meets the project specifications that were set out at the start of the project in the planning stage. Quality audits are tools and techniques that you may use during the assurance process. For example, if, during the planning phase of your project, you documented that your project team would conduct unit testing before functional testing, one thing you d determine during the audit would be whether you actually followed that predefined process. If a quality audit reveals that you performed steps out of order (functional testing before unit testing, tsk, tsk), you need to implement plans to correct this inefficiency. Quality audits may also be used to ensure that your project team is following your organization s coding standards. During the quality assurance stage of a software project, an independent review of your processes is used to ensure the quality of the project so that you can identify and eliminate inefficient processes and procedures. Quality
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216 Part III: Executing Your Software Project Plan Integrated testing: If the software interfaces with other software programs, integrated testing ensures that the two systems communicate appropriately. For example, a physician writes an order for a CAT scan in the hospital order entry system and that order flows to the radiology system as a CAT scan order and does not come through as a toe x-ray. Volume testing: If your software is to be used in a hospital where many clinicians will be using it simultaneously from any of several different computers, volume testing ensures that the software can withstand having multiple simultaneous users. When you create the quality management plan, you document how you plan to measure the quality of the project and the product. As part of your quality management plan, you must spell out which specific types of software testing you will perform in order to ensure quality. There are several quality management theories that may assist you in finding out more about project quality management, and each one has its own set of tools and techniques. We discuss them in Chapter 6. Understanding the Interoperability of the Quality Management Plan The quality management processes of quality planning, quality assurance, and quality control don t operate in a vacuum. It s a beautiful image (wouldn t it be cool to visualize these quality processes dancing around in a vacuum?), but not entirely accurate. In reality, they all work together, and are tied to other important planning, execution, and control processes in your project. Actually, the processes interact with each other throughout the course of the project. There would be no point in having quality assurance if you didn t have quality planning, because there would be no processes to audit if you hadn t already planned those processes. PQM is not just concerned with the quality of the project but also the quality of the product that is, the quality of the systems you re developing. The aim for high quality is one reason that you perform software testing. Can you imagine finishing any software project without completing the appropriate software testing? You perform the various types of software testing to ensure the appropriate quality.
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Chapter 10: Working the Project Plan 215 Remembering the nine project management knowledge areas In Chapter 1, we introduce the nine project Project Human Resources Management: knowledge areas outlined by the Project Hiring and managing the competent people Management Institute (PMI). PMI is a nonprofit working on your project. organization that sets standards and facilitates Project Communications Management: development for project management profes- Making sure that the people who need sionals. Here s an overview: information get it when they need it. Project Scope Management: Controlling Project Risk Management: Anticipating and the planning, execution, and content of the handling risks, as well as taking advantage project. of opportunities that can help a project. Project Time Management: Managing every Project Procurement Management: Creating thing that affects the project s schedule. vendor contracts and purchasing goods Project Cost Management: Cost estimating, and services. budgeting, and controlling the purse. Project Integration Management: Ensuring Project Quality Management: Ensuring the coordination of all the other knowledge that the product you are producing is a areas. quality product and that it meets customer expectations. For example, with your software, a doctor should be able to enter a complete blood count (CBC) lab order into the hospital order entry system; when the CBC order travels to the hospital s lab system, it must come into the lab system identified as a CBC order, and not as a pregnancy test. You might perform the following types of testing to ensure the quality of your hospital system code: Unit testing: A unit test ensures the quality of the specific areas of the software. For example, when users click a particular button in the hospital software, they see the appropriate item. Functional testing: Functional testing ensures that the software functions according to the requirements. For example, when users click a tab, they are taken to the appropriate area of the system. The purpose of functional testing is to perform processes that a typical user would perform and is primarily concerned with identifying issues found within the user s logical workflow.
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214 Part III: Executing Your Software Project Plan For information about how project quality management fits into the larger scheme of things, see the sidebar, elsewhere in this chapter, called Remembering the nine project management knowledge areas. The three processes from the PQM knowledge area are Quality planning: For quality planning, you use your firm s quality policy and its standards and regulations as input. You develop the quality planning during the planning phase of the project. Determining the quality standards for the project should be fully integrated into the rest of your project planning. Quality assurance: Quality assurance is one of the executing process areas and is concerned with performing quality audits so that you can ensure stakeholders that the quality management plan is being adhered to. Make sure that the software systems you are developing satisfy the quality standards that you and your stakeholders developed during the quality planning phase. The tools and techniques you can use for quality planning are benefit/cost analysis, quality audits, benchmarking, cost of quality analysis, and flowcharts. We discuss all of these tools later in this chapter. Whenever you can, you should work smarter, not harder. You can save a lot of time and effort if you use templates for the quality tools. If your organization doesn t provide templates, be sure to create templates yourself as you develop your quality planning tools. Making templates may be extra work, but they pay off during your next project and on into the future when you can use the templates that you created. Quality control: Quality control is one of the controlling process areas, and it deals with monitoring your software project to ensure that it conforms to the appropriate quality standards. This phase also helps you fix the areas of your project that contain broken processes that are causing the project to fall short of the quality standards. The inputs for the quality control process are work results, quality management plan, operational definitions, and checklists. You should also conduct inspections, a trend analysis, sampling, and use Pareto charts. Say that you re developing software that enables physicians, nurses, and other clinicians in a hospital to place lab, medication, and radiology orders. All of these orders need to travel to the appropriate corresponding systems quickly and efficiently. The hospital has specific needs: Orders must be delivered efficiently and quickly to the correct departments. When the departments receive the orders, they must correctly identify what s needed, for whom, and how fast.
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Chapter 10: Working the Project Plan 213 Control project changes, making updates as needed. Track project activities, such as writing specifications, documenting unit test plans, or creating CBTs. Report on the status of project activities using templates. The template may be a dashboard that is incorporated into the PMIS; it could also be a standard report set up in the PMIS. Compare the current status of your project to a baseline. Track risks associated with the project. Analyze project conflicts, such as a resource being overextended or two activities being assigned sequentially when they should be consecutive. View and share project calendars. Check the status of project costs and schedule. PMIS software is handy because it allows you to view, share, track, and report on many project activities. In fact, some types of PMIS software enable you to share this information on the Web. Take a gander at Microsoft Project 2003 For Dummies by Nancy Stevenson (Wiley) for more information on Microsoft Project. Ensuring Quality in Execution Project quality management is one of the project management knowledge areas described by the Project Management Institute (www.pmi.org). The purpose of this knowledge area is to ensure that the requirements of the project are met. In other words, if the project quality is being effectively managed, then the software that you were contracted to develop is the software that you actually develop. Avoiding the PMIS panacea Although PMIS software can help you to keep You must know how to be a successful software track of the status of your project, even the best project manager on your own. Use PMIS as a PMIS can t: tool one of many tools to help you keep track of project activities, control changes, align Guarantee that you will have a successful resources, and share relevant information with project the appropriate stakeholders. Think for you Solve problems for you Hide your mistakes from others
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